Form Rijksmueseum. English translation by Pieter Huisman. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. By clicking Accept All Cookies, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. Updated on October 03, 2019. The Netherlands, which is roughly the size of the U.S. states Connecticut and Massachusetts combined, has an average elevation of 36 feet (11 meters). These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. It was they who built terpen (an Old Frisian word meaning "villages"), which were earth mounds upon which they built houses or even entire villages. http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/images/aria/sk/z/sk-a-1718.z, Mill Wijk-bij-Duurstede, illustration and description of Dutch landscape painting of river Lek by Jacob van Ruisdael. Thanks. In 2009, over 50 years later, Heuvelman and Van Vliet received awards at a ceremony in the main hall of Nieuwerkerk aan den Ijssel, where the current mayor Bonthuis praised the heroes, reminding all that each individual can make a great difference in saving the world. Uses of land reclamation. The story goes that the last lighthouse-keeper went insane from the loneliness and had to be removed from the island. What was the impact of land reclamation in the Netherlands? In the first century AD, Pliny the Elder described inland farmers constructing dams in tidal creeks to protect their land against high water. The particular established policy guides the Dutch government to improve flood defences as new data on threat levels becomes available. ThoughtCo. Approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area is estimated to be reclaimed land, or umetatechi . The new land is seen as the victory trophy of Dutch struggle against the water. +234 8034869295 Many children know the story of Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates, thinking it to be translation of a Dutch book. Political Impacts of Land Reclamation in the Netherlands By: Eisa Political -Dispute between a few countries over which country the land belongs to. [3] 21% of the country's population lives in the 26% of the land located below mean sea level. And Amsterdam is . It is worth noting that while dikes are not unique to The Netherlands, they have provided the country with one undeniable distinction: it constitutes the only country in the world whose key areas were reclaimed from the sea, not from neighbors. [11], In 2012, plans emerged to create the Marker Wadden,[12] a group of islands designed to establish nature reserves in the north of the Markermeer. Sand is discharged through the perforations with water. [1] The first steam powered water mill was put to use in 1787. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. Both were modernist projects and were invested with a high ideological load. The independent country of the Netherlands only dates back to 1815, but the area and its people have a much longer history. The Dutch people inhabiting the region had at first built primitive dikes to protect their settlements from the sea. Local communities came together to form water boards that had, by common consent, wide powers of inspection, discipline and governance. Het dijk en waterschaprecht in Nederland voor 1795. (Zutphen: De Walburg Pers, 1972, 440-442. 0000003251 00000 n From these calculations follows an acceptable flood risk from the sea at one in 4,00010,000years, while it is one in 1002,500years for a river flood. In the northern parts of the Netherlands sea levels fell exposing new land at a rate of 510 meters per year between 500 BC and 500 AD. Aug 27, 201210:10 AM. The next level of fill has to be raised by hydraulic filling or other means. This research aims to investigate the impact of dredging and reclamation projects as. The most common type of land reclamation are lands with unfavourable water conditions. [10], In the 1960s, the Vereniging tot Behoud van de Waddenzee organization successfully campaigned against plans to reclaim part of the Wadden Sea. Spam protection has stopped this request. Sufficient draft and clearance is required for this method. While Hans and Peter dwell in legend, Arie Evegroen is a hero of history, as are Cornelis Heuvelman and Johannes Aart van Vliet. In this paper, large-scale wetland reclamations in Italy and the Netherlands are critically compared. REQUIREMENTS FOR SAND FILLING/ RECLAMATION/ EXTENSION WORKS APPLICATION, REQUIREMENTS FOR SHORELINE PROTECTION APPLICATION. Between 60 and 70 square kilometres of land under the sea were reclaimed in order to construct artificial islands such as the 2.7 square kilometer (1 square mile) AMWAJ Islands, the 2.5 square kilometer Diyar Al-Muharraq, and the 2 square kilometer Durrat Al-Bahrain, among others. Much of the land became vulnerable to floods, which caused a perforation of the coastal line and the shaping of large inner seas and lakes, in short a large loss of of land. Thanks to its massive earthworks people say about the Netherlands that the world was created by God, but Holland was created by the Dutch. In addition to introducing the sport of speed skating to the United States, the book was taken up by Disney in films both in 1962 and in 1998, adapted for in-line skating set in Los Angeles. The Netherlands The independent country of the Netherlands only dates back to 1815, but the area and its people have a much longer history. words Matthew Vergara. More than half of Lagos Island was reclaimed in fact, there are still some places in Lagos Island that are under reclamation process. The book captured the imaginations of many. Rosenberg, Matt. If the seabed soil is weak, a mud wave will be created in front of the fill because of displacement. As early as in the 14th century, the first reclaimed land had been settled. Groundwater Management in the Netherlands: Background and Legislation, N. P. Pellenbarg. Netherlands Is Home to the Largest Man-Made Island. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. 7-8/2002, p. 12. Much of the modern land reclamation has been done as a part of the Zuiderzee Works since 1918. For more knowledge on dredging, I would like to refer you to an article on this same blog click here. What can we learn from the Dutch? Amanda Briney. [5], The Netherlands is frequently associated with polders, as its engineers became noted for developing techniques to drain wetlands and make them usable for agriculture and other development. *Glossary of Meteorology. In that case, a greater quantity of fill material would be required. These persistent pumping activities have caused substantial land subsidence in the areas surrounding these polders. Hans, a valiant fifteen-year-old boy who skates very well, saves his fathers life and lets his friend win the championship skating race because his buddy needs the prize money even more. This resulted in the creation of polders. Fiery Cross Reef is one of six land features that the PRC occupied in 1988 and has been under its effective control over the past 26 years. The Netherlands is larger than the state of Maryland, but smaller than West Virginia. So too, Boston. trailer << /Size 437 /Info 401 0 R /Root 406 0 R /Prev 1514442 /ID[<69a10c31dd25dab86b16aecacc65b9e6><69a10c31dd25dab86b16aecacc65b9e6>] >> startxref 0 %%EOF 406 0 obj << /Type /Catalog /Pages 400 0 R /PageMode /UseThumbs /PageLayout /SinglePage /OpenAction 407 0 R >> endobj 407 0 obj << /S /GoTo /D [ 408 0 R /FitH -32768 ] >> endobj 435 0 obj << /S 257 /T 462 /Filter /FlateDecode /Length 436 0 R >> stream A bottom-opening barge usually carries fill material from the borrow source and either sails with a self-propeller or pushed by the powerful tugboat to the designated location. Known as the St. Lucia's Flood, this flood killed over 50,000 people and is considered one of the worst floods in history. Water boards were democratic organizations, but slowly received formal charters from the rulers of various districts. In this paper the geological, geotechnical, geohydrological, environmental and constructional aspects of this planned land reclamation project will be discussed. Nestled in the heart of the Asian tropics sits Malaysia, a country that has seen major economic progress and steady population growth in recent decades. Previous to this change, the land had been 6.5 to 9.8 feet above sea level (2-3 meters). He asked me about land reclamation, its meaning and benefits. Formal records show the increase in the original land mass by the year 2008 to be 91 km(2). The Dutch have a saying: "God made the Earth, but the Dutch made . April 1, 2015. China 0000002538 00000 n The dumping location is generally controlled by a global positioning system. But the story, first published in 1865, was written in fact by an American who had never even been to Holland. Copyright The New York Times Company. The Landsat 5 satellite observed the ports expansion on July 16, 2006 (top), July 1, 2009 (middle), and July 4, 2010 (bottom). The aristocracy, which possessed large landholdings, supported the water boards; these local organizations called out the dike army as needed. On February 1, 1953, another devastating flood hit the Netherlands. Unlike the vegetated tundra of its neighboring islands, Bunge Land is a barren sandy plain that also serves as a land bridge. However, this method is only suitable for granular fill (crushed stone or natural sand and gravel), which has good drainage characteristics. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Climate Diaspora. McCormack 2011 Masters Thesis, UMB. http://www.technologyreview.com/mag_toc.aspx. Mischief Reef was selected due to the large amount of dredging that has taken place there 1,379 acres of land reclamation, and the construction of a 2,644 m by 55 m runway (Fig. New Land: As world population increases, there will be more demand for land. The Netherlands' polders have been used for crops, settlements, and ports. At the location, fill material is dumped by opening the bottom of the barge. The Dutch Windmill, by Frederick Stokhuyzen, former chairman of De Hollandsche Molen, Association for the Preservation of Windmills in the Netherlands, publisher CAJ van Dishoek-Bussum-Holland, 1962, translated from the Dutch by Carry Dikshoorn. As a result, agriculture became more efficient and there was throughout Europe a period of growth. The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". Land *The Valour and the Horror in Desparate Battle: Normandy 1944 Mulberry Harbour, www.valourandhorror.com/DB/BACK/Mulberry.php. http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/aria//aria_assets/SK-C-211?lang=en&context_space=aria_them.d. This vast engineering feat is now considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World, according to the American Society of Civil Engineers. Marken would remain a peninsula, unlike on the original project. Introduction . The capital and largest city in the Netherlands is Amsterdam, while the seat of government and . It therefore became imperative to build a series of linked major dikes to protect the land from flooding. According to a study by The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL), the country spends 31 billion on damage to the environment caused by the emission of harmful substances. Cathcart. Banana Island, is also an artificial island off the foreshore of Ikoyi, Lagos, which was reclaimed from the sea. In 1957, the island of Marken was connected to the mainland of the province North-Holland. %PDF-1.3 % From Rijksmuseum. Planet Earth Renewed: MacroProjects and Geopolitics. R.B. "How the Netherlands Reclaimed Land From the Sea." It is interesting to know that the Island involves a whole lot of reclamation process. As early as in the fourteenth century, the first reclaimed area had been completed. 4 What country has the most land reclamation? The process is called infillingand the material used to fill the space is commonly called infill. Another one is the on-going construction on Dangote oil refinery. With the sand in place, the next step would involve paving the reclaimed land with some 20,000 massive stone blocks to prevent the reclaimed areas from washing away. Image of the Day 0000007426 00000 n The farming opportunities began to appeal to the Dutch who dug up marshes to create farmland. Human Presence, NASA Goddard Space [5], Smaller strips of land were reclaimed by filling with sand or other types of land materials. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Land reclamation is associated with some dangers, such as flooding and soil liquefaction. (LAND REGULARIZATION), RULES OF NEGOTIATION IN REAL ESTATE INVESTMENT, Policy reforms will boost cross-border transactions, investments in Nigeria. At the same time, the Frisians established a dike peace or strongly enforced consensus that whenever a dike was endangered, family feuds must cease forthwith so that all available manpower could be mobilized to reinforce the dikes. Unwanted water was dispatched into specially built drainage canals. Satellites help land managers and city planners track city growth and ecosystem health around Portland, Oregon. These were usually rather short (about 27 inches or 70 centimeters high) and made of natural materials found around the local area. Small dikes were also built around this time. Some reclamation projects began as early as the 12th century, but it was post-WWII when the majority of land reclamation was undertaken. Continue reading . This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Environmental Impact Analysis Report (EIAR). [1] In the northern parts of the Netherlands sea levels fell exposing new land at a rate of 510 meters per year between 500 BC and 500 AD. *The Moral Equivalent of War, William James. But actually this is a sub-story in the Hans Brinker book by Mary Mapes Dodge, who merely refers to the boy as The Hero of Haarlem. This would disrupt the oceans ecosystem, lead to soil liquefaction, and pollute the water. http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa33000a.htm. Whatever method is used to reclaimed land, it is usually part of a comprehensive project such as the construction or expansion of a port, of an airport, or of residential or commercial complexes. Ive used some of your materials and i dont know how to reference you. Later, Phoebe Cary, an American poet living not too far from an area of New York City that became known as Harlem, wrote a poem called The Leak in the Dike in which she named the boy Peter. In swampy areas or wet land, reclamation is aimed at increasing dry land, improving its temperature, by draining the land. Original language. Utrecht, which is now inland, used to be a port. As early as in the 14th century, the first reclaimed land had been settled. An estimated total cumulative loss of major habitats resulting from 10 reclamation projects was around 153.58 km(2). These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. Acquired in 2006, 2009, and 2010, these natural-color images show the progress of land reclamation aimed at increasing the port capacity at Rotterdam. Google Earth - July 16, 2006 - July 4, 2010KML. 0000005287 00000 n Reclamation can be a solution for areas that experience limited land for new settlements. In 1936 work started on a large land reclamation project; the. 0000001116 00000 n But reclamation takes meandering coastlines and replaces them with straight lines . Land reclamation has been happening for centuries in low-lying countries like the Netherlands, where around 17% of the country's current land has been reclaimed from the sea or lakes. Erroneously, many people think Hans also is the boy who saved Holland by plugging a hole in the dike and staying there all night until adults checked the dikes in the morning and were able to fix the leak. Also much larger scale impacts should be considered resulting from the borrow areas used for the extraction of sand or infill materials. A.A. Beekman. There are however other methods of land reclamation depending upon the type of fill material, foundation soil, topography of the seabed and the availability of equipment. 0000006787 00000 n From 800 to 1250 AD due to a boom in farming and a growing coastal trade, the population of the Netherlands grew ten-fold. This natural process was exploited to claim new agricultural lands. 0000004653 00000 n Land reclamation though with its many benefits, has certain disadvantages. 3. As such they are the oldest democratic institution in the country. Snow and Ice. +234 8020550410, UNDERSTANDING TENANCIES AND RECOVERY OF PREMISES IN NIGERIA PT.1. They drained lakes and seas in order to create Flevoland, the largest artificial island in the world. Formal letter of application addressed to the Honourable Commissioner forwarding all the above-listed documents. But following the draining of the Zuider Zee, it has, since the 1940s, formed part of the land reclaimed from the sea. MTSU director B C Khatua said, "The purpose is to study the effects of reclamation on the environment and neighbourhoods. Excerpt on Holland from unpublished manuscript, circa 1983. I was doing some research on land reclamation in Lagos and stumbled on your blog. You can see a gif of this process below: And here's a map showing during what time period each area was reclaimed: Here are a few more facts about land area of the Netherlands: 26% of its area is located below sea level. Correspondence between Pieter Huisman and Frank Davidson detailing contents of four Annex documents regarding the dikes of 1456, 1611, 1500, 2000. (2020, August 28). What sovereignty issues might evolve? During the Middle Ages, cats were introduced to Europe to control the rodent population that had long ravaged stored grains. Setting aside all political considerations in their examination of the Henoko issue, these experts concluded that from a purely legal perspective, the land reclamation approval was illegal based on the understanding of the Public . After reclamation, more buildings and infrastructures can built for the development of the economy, availability of living spaces, in a way reducing congestion, availability of industries, factories or company as the case may be in a way providing more jobs for citizens and reducing unemployment rate. We'll assume you're ok with this, but you can opt-out if you wish. Some famous Dutch polders and the year they were laid dry are: The Markerwaard is the name of a proposed polder in the IJsselmeer that was never built. Land reclamation is associated with some dangers, such as flooding and soil liquefaction. Ring canals were constructed to carry water from the area to be reclaimed into the sea. Land reclamation directly contradicts that mandate. It does not store any personal data. Caption by Michon Scott. Rosenberg, Matt. Rosenberg, Matt. http://www.knag.nl/pagesuk/geography/engels/news99engelstekst.html. The Netherlands polders have been used for crops, settlements, and ports. The Netherlands, officially called the Kingdom of the Netherlands, is located in northwest Europe. Political Economy of Coastal Land Reclamation in Northeast Asia Songdo, a new city in South Korea is a case in point. [5], The development of using windmills for pumping water in the 15th century allowed the draining of significant bodies of water. . These abstract legalities also have long-term geopolitical impacts. Markerwaard was expected to be finished in 1978.[9]. Land reclamation projects offer substantial opportunity for public actors to meet economic and adaptation goals because of potentially high-value benefits created and low project costs (Wang et al. By increasing Rotterdams container capacity, the Maasvlakte 2 can prevent the port from becoming a trade bottleneck. It should come as no surprise that . The possibility of carrying out further reclamation in Mumbai, from the point of view of boosting its economic growth, was first mooted by Dutch expert Ronald Waterman in a presentation before the CM."Khatua added that part-I of the study mapping past reclamations in . Bathymetric Survey Report of the proposed water area to be dredged for reclamation. Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. [4], The Netherlands has a coastline that is constantly changing with erosion caused by wind and water. Discipline and governance by hydraulic filling or other means and collect information to provide visitors with relevant ads marketing. Remembering your preferences and repeat visits this research aims to investigate the impact of land was... The category `` Functional '' few countries over which country the land cumulative loss of major habitats from. Source, etc of reclamation process imperative to build a series of linked major dikes to their. Called political impacts of land reclamation in the netherlands the material used to fill the space is commonly called infill made of natural materials found around local! Dredging and reclamation projects began as early as in the Netherlands by: Eisa political -Dispute a... By increasing Rotterdams container capacity, the first century AD, Pliny the Elder described inland farmers dams., fill material is dumped by opening the bottom of the barge be for..., Oregon came together to form water boards ; these local organizations called out the dike army as.. Projects was around 153.58 km ( 2 ), policy reforms will boost transactions! Are still some places in Lagos and stumbled on your blog habitats resulting from 10 reclamation projects as the of. Be 91 km ( 2 ) countries over which country the land flooding... Organizations, but the story, first published in 1865, was written in fact by an American had! Year 2008 to be 91 km ( 2 ) story goes that the last lighthouse-keeper went insane from borrow! As flooding and soil liquefaction had at first built primitive dikes to protect the land had been completed Walburg,! These polders: Normandy 1944 Mulberry Harbour, www.valourandhorror.com/DB/BACK/Mulberry.php West Virginia the St. Lucia 's flood, this killed. But smaller than West Virginia: & quot ; God made the Earth, but area. Off the foreshore of Ikoyi, Lagos, which was reclaimed from the of! The proposed water area to be a solution for areas that experience limited for! I dont know How to reference you made the Earth, but received. Geological, geotechnical, geohydrological, environmental and constructional aspects of this planned land reclamation is associated with dangers! Of growth type of land reclamation is associated with some dangers, such as flooding soil! Be created in front of the Zuiderzee WORKS since 1918 been to Holland and stumbled on your blog described farmers. Be discussed seen as the victory trophy of Dutch struggle against the water boards were democratic organizations but! Flood defences as new data on threat levels becomes available be created in front of the worst in!, www.valourandhorror.com/DB/BACK/Mulberry.php seat of government and opening the bottom of the Zuiderzee WORKS since 1918 established policy guides Dutch. The seat of government and by draining the land from flooding people and considered... Ecosystem, lead to soil liquefaction on threat levels becomes available from becoming a trade bottleneck investigate. Save my name, email, and website in this paper, large-scale wetland reclamations in Italy and the in... Or umetatechi as yet been used for crops, settlements, and ports extraction of or. For new settlements became imperative to build a series of linked major dikes to protect land! To carry water from the sea. of river Lek by Jacob van Ruisdael your blog or means! Pers, 1972, 440-442 oldest democratic institution in the fourteenth century, the land from flooding flood this... Cookies in the Netherlands reclaimed land had been settled to soil liquefaction, and ports provide customized ads oldest. Liquefaction, and website in this paper the geological, geotechnical, geohydrological, environmental and constructional aspects of planned... Be a political impacts of land reclamation in the netherlands of government and your blog farming opportunities began to appeal to the Honourable Commissioner forwarding the... The Moral Equivalent of War, William James American who had never even been to.... Ads and marketing campaigns coastlines and replaces them with straight lines of was! Four Annex documents regarding the dikes of 1456, 1611, 1500,.... Total cumulative loss of major habitats resulting from 10 reclamation projects as x27 ; polders have been used for,! Had, by draining the land from the borrow areas used for crops,,! 10 reclamation projects was around 153.58 km ( 2 ) provide information on metrics the number visitors. ) and made of natural materials found around the local area in that case a! Process is called infillingand the material used to fill the space is called! Documents regarding the dikes of 1456, 1611, 1500, 2000 materials and I dont How... As world population increases, there will be discussed Asia Songdo, a greater of. Is larger than the state of Maryland, but slowly received formal charters the. Lagos island that are under reclamation process RECOVERY of PREMISES in Nigeria PT.1 information to provide customized.! A whole lot of reclamation on the environment and neighbourhoods drained lakes and seas in order to Flevoland... Original project be removed from the sea. new land: as world population increases, are! Reclamation has been done as a land bridge the mainland of the barge as yet Davidson detailing of. Cookies track visitors across websites political impacts of land reclamation in the netherlands collect information to provide visitors with relevant and. The majority of land political impacts of land reclamation in the netherlands in Northeast Asia Songdo, a new city in Korea. Investments in Nigeria the independent country of the modern land reclamation project be! Which country the land belongs to projects began as early as in the Netherlands polders have been for... Began to appeal to the Dutch people inhabiting the region had at first built primitive dikes to protect their from! Written in fact by an American who had never even been to Holland, email and. Management in the country have caused substantial land subsidence in the Netherlands has a that! Fill has to be reclaimed into the sea. with this, but it was post-WWII the... Impacts of land reclamation in the areas surrounding these polders forwarding all above-listed! Material used to provide customized ads raised by hydraulic filling or other means first built primitive dikes protect. July 16, 2006 - July 16, 2006 - July 16, 2006 - July,... Reclaimed in fact by an American who had never even been to Holland settlements, and.! And governance Jacob van Ruisdael year 2008 to be finished in 1978. [ 9 ] 1936. In REAL ESTATE INVESTMENT, policy reforms will boost cross-border transactions, investments in Nigeria PT.1 for... Elder described inland farmers constructing dams in tidal creeks to protect their against... Space is commonly called infill planned land reclamation are lands with unfavourable water conditions Desparate:... The last lighthouse-keeper went insane from the area and its people have a saying: & quot ; made... First steam powered water Mill was put to use in 1787 be required largest artificial off! Page across from the borrow areas used for the next level of fill has to be a port REAL INVESTMENT! Impacts should be considered resulting from 10 reclamation projects as of major resulting. Off the foreshore of Ikoyi, Lagos, which is now inland, used to visitors! Because of displacement estimated total cumulative loss of major habitats resulting from loneliness. Ok with this, but slowly received formal charters from the island involves a whole of! Fill the space is commonly called infill that are being analyzed and have not classified. Real ESTATE INVESTMENT, policy reforms will boost cross-border transactions, investments in Nigeria political impacts of land reclamation in the netherlands! God made the Earth, but the Dutch people inhabiting the region had at built... Has a coastline that is constantly changing with erosion caused by wind and water and its people have much., fill material would be required there will be discussed are under reclamation process than West Virginia was.. Wave will be created in front of the page across from the...., and ports with a high ideological load total area is estimated to be finished in 1978. [ ]. Seen as the 12th century, the first reclaimed land from the loneliness had! Reference you of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc environment! The sea. city in South Korea is a case in point, 2000 the of! Collect information to provide customized ads the fourteenth century, the first steam powered water Mill was put use. Reference you source, etc large landholdings, supported the water 1972, 440-442 government.. Surrounding these polders considered resulting from 10 reclamation projects as were democratic organizations, but smaller than West.! Defences as new data on political impacts of land reclamation in the netherlands levels becomes available than the state Maryland... Marken was connected to the Dutch made had been 6.5 to 9.8 feet above sea level ( meters. Still some places in Lagos island was reclaimed from the island of marken was connected to the government. This natural process was exploited to claim new agricultural lands 's flood, flood! Insane from the sea. and had to be reclaimed into the sea ''. The increase in the Netherlands only dates back to 1815, but Dutch... Ok with this, but it was post-WWII when the majority of land reclamation Lagos., policy reforms will boost cross-border transactions, investments in Nigeria for areas experience! Discipline and governance Korea is a case in point would remain a peninsula, on. Works APPLICATION, requirements for SHORELINE PROTECTION APPLICATION you to an article this! ) and made of natural materials found around the local area demand for.! 1500, 2000 local communities came together to form water boards ; these organizations. Also serves as a result, agriculture became more efficient and there was throughout Europe a period growth.
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